
ALT "Ultimately, these disparities reflect structural inequities within healthcare systems and society. Cardiovascular professionals must remain aware of how their actions can perpetuate these inequities and consciously consider sex, gender, race, and ethnicity when personalizing patient treatment." Edina Cenko, Elena Osto, Roxana Mehran European Heart Journal, 2026

ALT Ischaemic heart disease: sex and gender differences Risk profile Anatomy and pathophysiology • Unbalanced weight of some risk factors • More biological changes in females in adult life Anatomy and pathophysiology • Sex-related structural and functional differences of the coronary circulation • Sex-related differences of obstructive vs non-obstructive CAD Diagnosis • Differences in symptoms • Male centric bias evaluation • Delay and underdiagnosis in females Prognosis and outcome • Differences in response and side effects to some treatments • Age-related differences • Findings from RCTs not fully generalizable to females Bridging the gap • Awareness • Education • Research • Patient involvement • Policy changes • Equal enrollment in RCTs and dedicated RCTs Horizontal and vertical equity in health care CAD, coronary artery disease, RCT, randomized controlled trial Manfrini O, et al. European Heart Journal

























